Author: Guest Writer

Mental health and well-being: IAWF position statement

By Rich McCrea

The International Association of Wildland Fire has committed to promoting health and wellbeing for wildland fire practitioners, their families and support communities.

The IAWF board has released a position paper Health & Wellbeing in the Wildland Fire Sector, which outlines actions the association will take to ensure everyone involved in the wildland fire sector is aware of mental health challenges and the available support.

The paper outlines the challenges fire practitioners often face, including remote work locations, long assignments, and extended work hours, which contribute to fatigue and high rates of stress, trauma, physical and mental injury.

This article originally appeared in Wildfire magazine, Issue 3 2025.

According to the paper, research indicates that wildland fire practitioners are often repeated victims of direct physical, mental, psychosocial impacts, and injuries. Health and wellbeing can be improved through medical treatments as well as cultural, social, and environmental interventions, the paper says.

The paper defines health and wellbeing in the broadest terms to include cultural, social, social, ecological, physical, mental, and professional wellbeing. In the paper, the term wildland fire practitioners refers broadly to wildland fire managers, firefighters, dispatchers, aviators, land managers, scientists, agency, non-government personnel, volunteers, and contractors.

The paper, which was accepted and endorsed by the IAWF board, was written for the association by members of the diversity and inclusivity committee Phillipa McCormack, DaRon Shavers, and David Riera.

“In publishing this position paper, the IAWF has acknowledged the importance of mental health and wellbeing for the global wildland fire community,” McCormack says.

“Some health and wellbeing considerations for this [wildland fire] community are unique, but many are shared with other emergency and land management sectors, and their families and supporters. We hope that this position paper starts – and helps to maintain – critically important conversations about health and wellbeing across the sector and around the world.”

The IAWF officially launched the paper at the 18th International Wildland Fire Safety Summit and 7th Human Dimensions of Wildland Fire Conference in Calgary, Alberta, in October 2025.

IAWF president Trevor Howard notes that all roles within the wildland fire sector are demanding.

“As climate and fire regimes change, so too will the operational tempo and effects,” Howard said. “While individual, cultural and organizational approaches to wellbeing vary, fundamentally people matter. This paper is a call to action at every level.”

IMPACTS OF WILDLAND FIRE

The paper highlights key research findings about mental health among wildland fire practitioners and recommends actions (see pages 19 and 20) for improving health and wellbeing in the wildland fire sector, joining global efforts for urgent change.

Already, the IAWF advocates for positive health and wellbeing by supporting efforts to influence governments, employers, and policymakers to implement practices that align with increased health and wellbeing among wildland fire practitioners.

The position paper notes that there are many direct and indirect impacts of wildland fire fighting on aspects of health and wellbeing. During fire assignments fire practitioners may be repeatedly exposed to sleep deprivation, job stress, high outdoor temperatures, environmental hazards of rugged terrain, and extreme fire behavior. Impacts on wellbeing can include mental, emotional, cultural and psychosocial stress and injuries from fire, smoke, and heat.

The paper also points to research that indicates employment in wildland fire can limit the availability of alternative job prospects because of the operational tempo of deployments or chronic fire-related injuries. Stress from fire assignments may trigger relationship breakdowns linked to post-traumatic stress and substance abuse. Financial and economic consequences sometimes arise, such as lost work time resulting from injuries, and long-term expenses associated with gradual health impacts.

According to the paper, cultural impacts of working in the wildland fire sector can include systemic harm from culturally unsafe workplaces and environments – conditions that harm First Nations’ and culturally and linguistically diverse peoples’ cultural, spiritual, emotional and physical health. Research cited in the paper shows that wildland fires can have various effects on communities, including evacuations, loss of homes, property, significant sites, aspects of culture, social connections, and livelihoods, which impact health and wellbeing of residents and fire practitioners.

PATHWAYS FOR CHANGE

The paper indicates that health and wellbeing in the wildland fire sector can be improved through coordinated efforts at individual, workplace, and systemic levels, and provides examples of tools in each category.

• Pathways and actions to enhance health and wellbeing start with individual responsibility for health, fitness, readiness, recovery and resilience, action plans, and peer-to-peer mentoring.

• Workplace pathways can include cultural competency and cultural safety training, along with mandatory emotional intelligence programs for team leaders.

• Systemic actions may include researching and identifying pathways for reform to legislation, regulations and policy. People will only be able to use these tools and mechanisms if the financial, emotional and cultural barriers to accessing and using them are removed.

CONTRIBUTING FACTORS

The paper points out that research on wildland fire practitioners’ health is limited, particularly around long term risks such as cancer and cardiovascular disease. Limited research may be due to fire practitioners rarely seeking help, particularly for mental health, despite facing significant physical and psychological stress. According to the paper and previous research, organizational culture and fear of appearing weak contribute to reluctance, leading to issues such as substance abuse, burnout, and disproportionately higher suicide rates among people who work in the wildland fire sector.

The mental-health paper references previous IAWF position papers on climate change and prescribed fire, and notes that climate change is another important factor impacting wildland fire practitioners. Wildfires are becoming larger, more frequent and destructive, in large part due to climate change. Climate change is increasing the length and severity of fire seasons, which will require fire crews to be on call or deployed for longer periods during the fire season. According to the climate-change paper, these long deployments “reduce the time that wildland fire practitioners have to rest, recover and heal from long and intense fire campaigns.” Climate change worsens health risks, with wildfire smoke increasingly aggravating conditions like asthma and lung disease.

Related Wildfire Today article: Mental health risks for wildland firefighters mostly not studied

CALL TO ACTION

The IAWF Position Statement: Health and Wellbeing in the Wildland Fire Sector is a call to action for organizations that employ wildland fire practitioners to encourage them to take steps to increase health and wellbeing. The paper notes a need for these entities to “commit substantial resources and make a sustained effort to provide health-related education, training and other interventions to contribute enhanced wellbeing, greater resilience, and long term support for those experiencing injury and trauma.

“Existing efforts have not consistently and successfully mitigated the harm experienced by many people and communities in the wildland fire sector,” the paper says. “As climate changes and wildfire events expand in their scale, scope and duration, these are challenges that the IAWF have identified as critically important and worthy of greater commitment and effort.”

Fire practitioners and agencies often encounter financial, emotional and cultural barriers when working to improve health and wellbeing. Removing these obstacles and ensuring practical access to resources is essential for improving outcomes in the wildland fire sector.

The paper explains the IAWF’s vision, “to seek and promote and contribute to the mental, cultural, physical, and emotional safety of wildland fire practitioners worldwide; and to foster meaningful connections within and across wildland fire practitioner communities, to help build resilience and sustain health and wellbeing.”

The IAWF is committed to promoting opportunities for research, knowledge and experience sharing. To achieve this vision, the IAWF proposes four actions

IAWF ACTIONS

1. Understand the range of stressors affecting wildland fire practitioners, including the compounding and interacting direct and indirect effects of those stressors on health, wellbeing and ‘connectedness.

2. Foster safety, tolerance and diversity in all its forms, along with open communication about health and wellbeing for wildland fire practitioners across countries, cultures and contexts.

3. Promote a culture of active support for wildland fire practitioners to manage these stressors and build and maintain physical, emotional, cultural and other forms of health and wellbeing.

4. Develop and communicate holistic and nuanced messages about health and wellbeing for wildland fire practitioners; including to policymakers, fire agencies, fire practitioners, and non-government organizations associated with wildland fire, including those in support, communication and service provision roles.

In addition, the IAWF has committed to five key actions the association and its members can implement immediately to increase the awareness of health and wellbeing, including building partnerships, advocating for better practices, and creating safe spaces for conversations and mentoring at IAWF events.

Enhancing the health and wellbeing of wildland fire practitioners will contribute to sustaining a resilient and highly qualified workforce and will benefit communities and cultures.

IAWF Commitments

1. Advocate for better understanding and responses to the full range of stressors influencing health and wellbeing;

2. Create and cultivate safe spaces for conversation, empowerment, connection and mentoring at IAWF-supported events and in IAWF programs;

3. Partner with agencies and other organizations to promote the importance of health and wellbeing;

4. Advocate for improvements in policies, practices, workplace cultures and norms that negatively affect health and wellbeing of the wildland fire community, across the world;

5. Investigate new partnerships to facilitate access to new resources, guidance and support for members of the wildland fire sector and their families, communities and environments.

Read the IAWF position paper Health & Wellbeing in the Wildland Fire Sector.

Rich McCrea is an Associate Editor of Wildfire magazine. During his career, McCrea worked 32 years in fire management and forestry with several federal agencies. Outfitted with a degree in forestry, McCrea started his career as a seasonal employee with the US Forest Service as a forestry technician and member of the Helena Interagency Hotshot Crew, then moved on to permanent positions with the US Department of Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, as a forester and fire management officer at three different field locations, and at the National Interagency Fire Center.

mental health safety

Protecting US federal lands is central to the national wildfire crisis

Labor is the key resource to tackling wildfires says Bob Roper. August 2025 Lake Fire in the Modoc National Forest. Photo: CalFire

By Bob Roper

Wildland firefighters are facing a formidable battle, coping with labor shortages during one of the most intense fire seasons in recent years. As a California firefighter for over 45 years — including 15 years as Ventura County Fire Protection District chief and Nevada State Forester — I know firsthand that when it comes to stopping the spread of wildfires, there is no replacement for a well-trained and equipped firefighting force.

But it takes more than a quick and skilled response to prevent a wildfire catastrophe. We also need to prioritize wise management of federal lands.

As Californians in San Luis Obispo County are currently witnessing this summer, wildfires that start on state/federal lands can quickly spread to surrounding areas, threatening many lives, damaging health, destroying homes and businesses, and devastating communities. While wildfires on federal lands only make up approximately one-fifth of the total wildfires recorded across the country, they are typically responsible for nearly half the acres burned.

I applaud the lawmakers who are working to address the workforce gaps by ensuring adequate funding for hiring, training, and support. As they do so, I ask them to make it part of a holistic approach to wildfire prevention and response. This is paramount if we want to truly address the worsening wildfire crisis.

Why are wildfires burning so much of our federal land? One reason is that under current regulations, federal land management policies and environmental clearances make wildfire prevention arduous and sometimes impracticable. For example, formulating and conducting prescribed burns takes time, and needed labor resources are in short supply. Additionally, electric grid operators and electrical workers cannot easily gain access to powerlines and other infrastructure on federal lands. We need to reduce the unnecessary challenges to perform vegetation management and other wildfire risk management activities. Without success, this means that our federal lands — and our people — are left more vulnerable.

These fires cause enormous human suffering. Clouds of harmful smoke can travel thousands of miles to neighboring states and linger in the air for weeks. This contaminated air can be dangerous for Americans with pre-existing health issues and can even trigger cardiovascular and lung health issues. It also impacts the health of our first responders who are battling these wildfires. As policymakers look to improve our wildfire preparedness and response, protecting firefighters from the adverse health risks of wildfire smoke needs to be a part of effective policy solutions.

Along with the health impacts, we are all too familiar with the financial cost. Wildfires already cost the United States between $394 and $893 billion annually due to property and capital losses along with insurance and liability costs. A new report from Gallagher estimated that the two wildfires that impacted much of Los Angeles County in January will cost $65 billion in economic losses. During my years as a firefighter, I’ve seen businesses crumble from wildfires and struggle to get back on their feet and cope with the combined property and wage losses.

With more than 4,000 wildfires already recorded and 3.7 million acres burned this year alone, we need Congress and federal agencies to take action and help address this crisis. For starters, the President’s June Executive Order aims to create a more effective wildfire response through the U.S. Wildland Fire Service (USWFS). It is encouraging to see the Administration take actions to increase collaboration and efficiency, but sufficient resources for first responders will be crucial to the success of USWFS.

Additionally, the House and Senate should pass the bipartisan Fix Our Forests Act. This much-needed step from Congress will help improve federal land management and coordination across federal, state, and local authorities. But this legislation is just one piece of a much larger, national wildfire strategy. We also need to address labor shortages among wildland firefighters and ensure that state and local partners have the resources needed to train and recruit skilled individuals.

As a country, we cannot continue to approach wildfires with the same patchwork of solutions that have been in place for decades. Let’s take decisive and comprehensive actions to keep our families and our communities safe from the growing wildfire threat.

Bob Roper is the Senior Wildfire Policy Advisor for the Western Fire Chiefs Association. He has been in the fire service for over 45 years, starting as a volunteer firefighter and then rising to executive positions. He served in the Ventura County Fire District for 34 years, the last 15 as Fire Chief and as the Nevada State Forester.

California United States

Studying aerial drops for a better system – France

Various camera views of retardant drops show specific factors that help to determine effectiveness. Photo courtesy of Entente Valabre.

By Frédérique Giroud and Dominique Legendre

Research and experiments on airdrops in France began with the first LABEX (LArgage Bombardier d’eau EXperimentation) experiment in 1995.

Following the acquisition of CL-415 waterbombers by the French government, it quickly became apparent that to optimize aerial firefighting, it was necessary to understand the dropping characteristics of the aircraft.

[This is the final article from a special edition of Wildfire Magazine on Aerial Firefighting around the World.]

Entente Valabre, the laboratory of the French Securité Civile, oversaw measuring the ground patterns of the French waterbomber fleet.

The aim of the LABEX research is to determine the ground patterns of various water-bombing aircraft and analyze the ground distribution of the released product by application rate class.

Each aircraft comes with a range of dropping programs. To optimize aircraft use in aerial forest fire fighting, it is essential to know the surface areas covered by the different applications – how much area is covered and by what depth of drop.

To complement these experiments at a real scale, with real aircraft, other experiments are carried out to understand and model aircraft drops are conducted. Analysis by Entente Valabre researchers of the airtanker ground patterns show that the product is not deposited uniformly, and is often deposited very irregularly, because of a complex fragmentation process of the liquid column released by the aircraft.

Although the release process seems simple, the fluid dynamics governing the transformation of a liquid block into a cloud of droplets are only partially understood. The droplets can be neither too fine to avoid dispersion and evaporation, nor too large to avoid harsh impacts on vegetation and the ground, resulting in projected objects. Large-scale fragmentation of a drop, which leads to the formation of liquid meteors that take longer to atomize into droplets, is a complex process and its physical origin is unexplained.

DETERMINATION OF GROUND PATTERNS

Ground patterns are evaluated on flat test areas, free of vegetation or covered only with herbaceous vegetation up to a height of 20 centimetres.

The test area dimensions are determined according to the aircraft to be tested and the areas is set up in a grid. The drop patterns are measured by distributing receptacles over the test area, comprising a fixed support and a collection cup designed to catch the liquid. After each test, the cups are hermetically sealed, collected and weighed. Each pattern is then plotted on a predefined scale, corresponding to classes of application rate in litres per square metre per day, or litre/metres².

DETERMINING RELEASE EFFICIENCY

The ground-pattern efficiency is primarily related to the application rates obtained, depending on the product released – water or retardant. In the Mediterranean region, under normal conditions of vegetation (10 metric tonnes per hectare), weather (wind less than 60 km/h) and terrain (not generating excessively difficult trajectories or significant turbulence), a rate of 0.8 lm2 is representative of an effective release using long-term retardant, while a rate of 1.6 l/m2 is representative of an effective release using water.

The various ground patterns parameters are:

The length and depth for coverage rates above the representative application rates

The area and product volume above representative application rates

The homogeneity of the ground pattern

The difference between the time the drop hits the ground and the time it totally covers the ground.

Ground pattern extension and concentration levels are not the only release characteristics that can determine the effectiveness of a drop. The speed of the released product can have a considerable influence on breaking fire-induced updrafts during direct attack, on upwind accuracy, or on safety on the ground. All these factors can be qualitatively related to the phases of ground-pattern formation. The three phases – retardant cloud tearing, atomization and dispersion – explain the various stages that take place between the initial break-up of the product cloud and the formation of droplets that have reached their final size. The rheology of the product, the height and speed of the aircraft, and the release system play an important role in these phenomena.

Observation of the drop is very important to assess its effectiveness, and valuable information can be gleaned from camera images. For this reason, a few subjective criteria are selected:

Frontal view (cohesion, drift, separation phenomena, expansion, tearing)

Lateral view (core erosion, deformation, disintegration, forward velocity)

The status of the cloud when it hits the ground and the way it disperses while resting on the ground.

The drop patterns are measured by distributing receptacles over the test area, comprising a fixed support and a collection cup designed to catch the liquid. After each test, the cups are hermetically sealed, collected and weighed.

PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

The ground patterns are presented in the form of summary sheets in which the following are described:

technical flight data (altitude, aircraft speed)

technical loading data (weight, volume)

meteorological conditions

ground patterns characterization.

Following these analyses, recommendations are made regarding the use of different dropping programs for specific firefighting missions, for example initial attack or retardant barrier construction.

EXPERIMENTAL CAMPAIGNS IN FRANCE

Five experimental campaigns have been conducted in France:

LABEX 1996: Canadair CL-415, Hercules C130, Fokker 27, Tracker 2SF

LABEX 2009: Dash 8 Q400, Canadair CL-415, Tracker 2SF

LABEX 2013: Air Tractor AT-802

LABEX 2021: Dash 8 Q400 with retardant

LABEX 2024: Dash 8 Q400 with water

DROP MODELING

A liquid drop in the wind tunnel at the Institut wind de Mecanique des Fluides de Toulouse and computational fluid dynamics of a Canadair CL-415 drop. Images courtesy of Entente Valabre.

LABEX campaigns are time consuming and costly; therefore, it is essential to have a dropping model that can be used to vary, for example, the height of the drop, the wind direction and the characteristics of the product released – questions that water bomber pilots frequently ask to understand and optimize their practice.

With this in mind, a team at the Institut de Mecanique des Fluides de Toulouse is developing a dropping model that has already been tested against results obtained during various LABEX campaigns.

Initially, the approach was based on ground patterns from the US Department of Agriculture Forest Service’s open-access technical reports, which made it possible to study and model the main characteristics of a ground footprint, namely its length, width and density of deposited product.

The use of numerical simulation as a tool for predicting the drop cloud produced by an aircraft appears to be very attractive for gaining access to all the physical mechanisms involved. However, the computing resources available, even at the biggest French and European computing centers, do not currently allow researchers to describe the entire process from the aircraft to the ground.

The three phases – retardant cloud tearing, atomization and dispersion – explain the various stages that take place between the initial break-up of the product cloud and the formation of droplets that have reached their final size.

An approach developed by PhD candidate Corentin Calbrix in his thesis for Universite de Nimes was limited to describing the fragmentation of the released liquid in a zone close to the aircraft, i.e. 10 metres below the aircraft. Computational fluid dynamics studies of the CL-415 and Dash 8 drops were carried out, showing that fragmentation and dispersion in this zone prefigured ground deposition 50 metres below, which could be deduced by extrapolation of the drop cloud envelop. This approach can now be used to study drops by these aircraft under various operational conditions, particularly in the presence of crosswinds, to help interpret the differences in ground patterns observed during LABEX and provide useful information to optimize forest fire fighting.

Frontal and lateral observation of the release during a LABEX is an essential element in assessing the quality of a release. The eye can identify the quality of product fragmentation and dispersion and anticipate the characteristics of the ground pattern. Packages with a higher concentration of liquid are generally easy to observe and are likely to generate areas of higher concentration on the ground, making the ground pattern less uniform and of poorer quality.

The explanation for this fragmentation mechanism is not yet available: Is it a physical instability intrinsic to fragmentation at this scale, or the memory of a disturbance transmitted to the fluid by the release system? To answer this question, studies are underway at the Institut de Mecanique des Fluides de Toulouse combining wind tunnel experiments and numerical simulation.

A one-tenth scale dropping device has been installed in the 2.4 metre diameter wind tunnel, capable of delivering up to 25 m/s of relative wind. The fragmentation of the liquid column is filmed by a high-speed camera at 2,000 frames per second. The first results of the water release show a specific fragmentation mechanism that cannot be explained by literature results at smaller scales.

A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code benchmark is underway to challenge various French and American research codes for the study of this instability; these codes must be able to reproduce wind tunnel experiments before the study of fragmentation at aircraft scale can begin.

Ultimately, understanding the origin of the instability and its modes will lead to proposals for better designs for release systems.

The aim of the LABEX research is to better understand and optimize aerial forest fire fighting. It is essential to know the different firefighting missions of aircraft to provide recommendations on the use of the different drop programs available on each aircraft. Climate change leads to changes in fire behavior, and the missions of firefighting aircraft must be adapted to these new phenomena. The tools and experiments described above will be used to improve existing dropping systems, to validate their operational use, and to assist pilots in the understanding of their practice.

aerial firefighting France

Aerial suppression effectiveness research – Canada

By Melanie Wheatley, Colin Mcfayden, Razim Refai, Emily Hope, and Heather Simpson

Suppression or control of wildfires with airtankers is a core strategy for most Canadian provincial and territorial wildfire management agencies. Airtankers include fixed wing and helicopter aircraft that drop water, retardant, or other suppressants onto wildfires.

Across Canada’s vast forests, a variety of airtankers are used, each suited to different fire conditions and landscapes.

[This article is from a special edition of Wildfire Magazine on Aerial Firefighting around the World.]

Canada’s boreal zone spans more than 550 million hectares – an area larger than the European Union.

On average, about 8,000 wildfires ignite across the country each year, burning about 2.1 million hectares. During extremely active fire seasons – such as 2023 – up to 15 million hectares burned nationwide.

Despite these numbers, the boreal forest is a fire-resilient ecosystem and relies on wildfire for renewal and health. However, when fires threaten valuable forest resources, human lives, or property, wildfire suppression tactics come into play to minimize unwanted impacts.

Skimmer airtankers, which scoop water from lakes, are commonly used in areas with abundant waterbodies such as Eastern Canada. Land-based airtankers, which rely on airport refueling, are more common in regions where lakes are fewer or harder to access, such as some areas in Western Canada and the northern territories.

Some regions use both types of aircraft, combining the advantages of direct suppression with the skimmer airtanker that drops suppressant right on the flames, and indirect suppression, with land-based airtankers that drop suppressant ahead of the fire to create a barrier.

Helicopters equipped with water tanks or buckets are also widely used because they can pick up water from small lakes and rivers and manoeuvre through tough terrain.

Canadian fire management agencies and researchers collaborate on field-based aerial suppression experiments. Andrew Reid, air attack officer (left) is coordinating the tactical plan for suppression on the experiment. Melanie Wheatley, research scientist (right) is communicating the science plan and recording observational data associated with fire behaviour and suppression. Photo courtesy of CIFFC Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources.

Provinces and territories secure and operate their airtanker fleets in different ways. Some regions own and operate their own fleets of fixed-wing airtankers, some contract aircraft (and crew) from specialized suppliers, and others do a mixture of both. Helicopters (rotary-wing airtankers) are generally contracted based on demand. But no agency is left to fend for itself when fire activity exceeds the number of airtankers available.

The Canadian Interagency Forest Fire Centre (CIFFC) helps coordinate the sharing of aircraft and personnel across the country and internationally, ensuring that agencies can share resources and response effectively to wildfire. The record breaking 2023 fire season in Canada presented a historically unprecedented level of resource demand. Canadian agencies received assistance (firefighters and overhead personnel) from 12 countries. Considering climate change, it’s expected that 2023 may not be anomalous, but rather a signal of a new normal.

Leveraging research to improve suppression effectiveness in wildfire operations

Innovation in the aviation space to support wildfire suppression has its history deeply rooted in Canada. The use of airtankers to deliver water – commonly referred to as waterbombing – originated in Canada in the 1940s when pilots in northern Ontario began experimenting by dropping waxed paper bags of water or mounting water drums on aircraft to assist ground crews with suppressing fires. Since then, Canada has continued to innovate and conduct research on airtanker suppression effectiveness. Research in Ontario in the 1990s guided agencies toward an optimal configuration for their airtanker fleets – the type and number of aircraft needed to meet average fire demands.

The complex problem of defining and measuring the effectiveness of airtankers is not straightforward and therefore requires studying the operational use of airtankers in many stages throughout the fire-response process. The current research in Canada is examining the operational use of airtankers including deployment strategies, dispatch prioritization, and understanding and maximizing the effectiveness of airtanker use on fires.

One of the challenges fire managers face is day-basing – a question of where, when, and how many airtankers to pre-position in strategic locations. Researchers in Alberta and Ontario are developing airtanker positioning models to support decision making and resource prioritization.

To lower initial attack response times, a typical approach is to use pre-set rules such as attack radius, response time and fire hazard to identify optimal locations to position airtankers. Studies in British Columbia and Ontario use historical fire and airtanker use data to identify factors that influence airtanker dispatch during initial attack, insights that can be incorporated in optimization simulation models.

Understanding how well airtankers work in real-world operations is critical. In Ontario, researchers have used detailed observations from skimmer airtanker missions recorded from trained air attack officers who are deployed with the airtankers, recording operational mission data including detailed observations of fire behaviour directly observed from the fireline, along with the volume of suppression applied during a skimmer airtanker mission. This data was used to develop statistical models that quantify the ability of CL-415s to reduce fireline intensity on both initial attack and for sustained action missions. These models present the required amount of suppression to reduce fire behaviour to a smouldering state given various levels of presuppression fire behaviour. Importantly, because of the ability of the CL-415 to scoop water from nearby lakes resulting in fast turnaround-times, the findings indicate that in Ontario, the CL-415 airtanker can be effective at higher intensities than previously indicated by current operational suppression effectiveness thresholds used across Canada – an important finding to guide future airtanker use.

Theoretical models, based on what we know about the physical properties of how water and fire interact, have been developed to assess and compare the effectiveness of different skimmer and rotary-wing airtankers used across Canada’s boreal. In 2023, the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Natural Resources Canada published the Reference Guide to the Drop Effectiveness of Skimmer and Rotary Wing Airtankers – a valuable tool for fire management agencies to compare the effectiveness of these different airtankers under varying levels of fire behaviour. Efforts are ongoing to communicate these findings to fire operational personnel.

Because wildfire is a dynamic and complex process, fire management research must go beyond the theoretical science. Field-based research – research on actual wildfires – is considered a gold standard to understanding not only fire behaviour but airtanker suppression effectiveness.

Before examining airtanker suppression on wildfires in the field, an understanding of drop pattern, or footprints of airtankers, is important. Efforts to study and quantify drop patterns, which measure the distribution and depth of water, suppressant, or retardant dropped by airtankers, date back to the 1960s. More recently, Canadian research firm FP Innovations, the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, and Natural Resources Canada developed drop patterns for airtankers used across Canada. Various airtanker types – including the Canadair CL-215T, Canadair CL-415, AT-802 Fire Boss, AT-F802F, Sikorsky S-61N, Bell 212, and others – have been tested across open fields, forested, and fuel-treated stands. Using a modified cup-and-grid method, where hundreds of cups are placed on the ground in a large grid to measure the amount of water, suppressant, or retardant collected after each drop, researchers have documented the coverage levels and drop footprints of these aircraft that are commonly used in Canada.

Total cumulative number of aircraft (broken down by skimmer and land-based airtanker) mobilized from 1982 to 2024 by the Canadian Interagency Forest Fire Centre. Over the last 10 years, an average of 24 skimmer airtankers and four land-based airtankers are mobilized across Canada each year (this does not include short-term support such as cross-boundary quick-strike coordinated through localized compacts). Plot is re-created from https://www.ciffc.ca/mobilization-stats.

Building on our understanding of airtanker drop footprints, recent field experiments have examined the impact of airtanker suppression action on active wildfires. FPInnovations and Alberta Wildfire have conducted several field-based studies that explore impacts of suppression from both rotary-wing and land-based airtankers. Studies involving helicopter tankers (Sikorsky S-61N) emphasized effectiveness in direct attack applications while those involving land based airtankers (Dash 8-Q400AT) looked at retardant effectiveness in indirect attack applications. Methods used in these studies relied on airborne thermal infrared imagery to collect data from a helicopter (figure 3). These research methods are also being used to explore the effectiveness of suppression activities from night-vision system aided helicopters for actioning fires at night.

In 2024 the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, The National Research Council of Canada and Natural Resources Canada initiated field research to test the effectiveness of the CL-415 on wildfires in Canada’s boreal forest. Researchers, paired with fire behaviour experts and operations staff, used an infa-red imaging-equipped helicopter positioned above CL-415 suppression activity to record the associated impact on fire behaviour. This project leverages an experimental design where controlled replicates of airtanker drops are applied in real-world settings to try to limit variability in observations as much as possible. This innovative methodology will process the infa-red imagery to provide detailed estimates of fire spread and fireline intensity, attributes that fire managers commonly used to support their decision making. These field-based studies are necessary to form a baseline scientific understanding of airtanker effectiveness, which will be the foundation of future studies related to optimizing airtanker use in fire management.

There is plenty to learn about how to support the optimization of airtanker use during operations and plan for their long-term role in wildfire management.

The execution and implementation of this research requires close collaboration between those who use the aircraft and those who research them. Canada is fortunate to have strong collaborative relationships between researchers and fire managers, a relationship that is strengthened through networks such as the CIFFC Aviation Working Group, a national group of aviation fire managers who share knowledge on aviation-related challenges in fire management and support innovation to address those challenges.

Thermal imagery is used to study the effectiveness of suppressants on active wildfires.

Agencies play a key role in the research process by identifying research needs, sharing operational data, providing expertise, and supporting field studies that directly measure airtanker performance. Researchers bring the analytical tools and scientific methods to refine and expand our understanding of aerial suppression effectiveness. By combining operational expertise with research, Canada continues to refine its approach to aerial fire fighting, ensuring a safe, effective use of aviation resources to support wildfire management for years to come.

aerial firefighting Canada

Government program boosts aerial resources – South Africa

A Kishugu JV Huey helicopter at the Pringle Bay fire in the Western Cape, South Africa on Jan. 30, 2024. Photo courtesy of Working on Fire.

By Trevor Abrahams

Aerial firefighting has become a staple component of South Africa’s approach to combating unwanted wildfires and limiting the devastating impacts of such fires. Its emergence as a critical defence system dates back to the period after the devastating fires in South Africa’s plantation forests in the 1980s. As in other parts of the world, aerial firefighting resources are recognized as necessary measures to combat large fires, complementing the firefighters on the ground.

[This article is from a special edition of Wildfire Magazine on Aerial Firefighting around the World.]

“The coordination between aerial and ground crews is key to the success of firefighting operations,” said Johan Heine, founder of the Working on Fire programme. The Working on Fire programme is a government funded public employment programme targeting unemployed youth who are trained to serve as certified wildland firefighters; they are deployed at 230 bases across South Africa and abroad in countries such as Canada, Indonesia and Chile.

The introduction of aircraft to combat fires from above significantly improved response times, enabling quicker containment and minimising losses. Aerial fire fighting not only saved the South African commercial forestry industry from collapse but became an integral part of the current wildfire management strategies that protect South Africa’s natural environment.

South Africa typically experiences two fire seasons. The summer fire season is December to April in the southern part of the country, which is a winter rainfall region, and the winter fire season is June to October in the northern and eastern parts of the country, which experience summer rainfall. This seasonal character of the fire season has allowed a relatively limited fleet of aerial resources to cover a country of some 1.2 million square kilometres. However, the impact of climate change has introduced an element of unpredictability as some of the largest recorded fires have occurred in areas out of the normal fire season.

South Africa has three broad fire prone biomes: the savannah bushveld; the grasslands; and a Mediterranean like fynbos area along the southern coasts and mountains and the cultivated commercial plantation forests. The fire risk in South Africa is exacerbated by the prevalence of alien vegetation infestations, such as eucalyptus, wattles, and hakea originating from Australia, and pines from Europe and North America, which propagate wildfires at a fiercer rate and are more demanding on ground water than indigenous vegetation.

In 1981, the commercial forestry industry studied methods employed in North America and initially contracted aerial bombers (Ayers Thrush with 500-gallon hoppers) together with spotter command and control aircraft. Subsequent disaster wildfires in 1985 increased the demand for aerial firefighting resources and gave rise to growth in this aspect of wildland fire management in South Africa. At this point, South Africa also developed a single dispatch centre for coordinating the deployment of both ground and the growing number of aerial resources to wildland fires.

A wide variety of aircraft have been used in firefighting operations in South Africa. The current fleet of aerial firefighting resources includes agricultural application aircraft that are deployed in some areas seasonally to dedicated firefighting operations as part of the Working on Fire programme; these include 10 Thrush 400/500s, five AT802s, four AT502s, 14 Hueys, one Black Hawk, one Bell 212, five Squirrel B3s and some 14-C182, C206 and C210 light aircraft deployed as command and control aircraft.

Initial use of Bell Jet Ranger helicopters equipped with underslung Bambi buckets soon gave way to larger Russian Mi-8s and Kamovs, which arrived in South Africa in 1990 seeking work after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and later the introduction of the Bell UH-1 Iroquois, commonly known as the Huey, after the original UH-1 designation. The helicopter fleet also serves as essential trooping vehicles for firefighters responding to wildfires in the mountainous and remote areas of South Africa.

The Huey was originally developed and certified by the United States military in 1959 and became the iconic helicopter in the Vietnam War. With its capacity to carry a Bambi bucket holding around 1200 litres of water, the Huey has become a familiar sight in South African skies. Renowned for its reliability and relatively low operating cost, the Huey remains a preferred choice in aerial fire fighting in South Africa. There is also a single version of the Black Hawk helicopter (2500-litre load) that flies alongside a fleet of 14 Hueys and five AS350s (800-litre load) currently operating in South Africa.

The Russian Mi-8 and Kamov helicopters – modified for firefighting purposes – can carry up to 3500 litres and 5000 litres of water respectively. While these aircraft offered powerful firefighting capabilities, they also came with significant operating costs and were ultimately excluded from South African operations by the South African Civil Aviation Authority. The South African Air Force also occasionally provides support with Oryx helicopters during disaster fires.

The fixed wing bomber fleet started with the rotary engine Dromader (2500 litre load), which was replaced with the purpose-built Air Tractor 802, one of the leading single engine airtankers deployed in firefighting operations globally. The AT802 can carry more than 3000 litres of water and chemicals via a computer-controlled water dispensing system.

South Africa has a somewhat unique role for its command-and-control Spotter aircraft, typically high-wing Cessna 182s, 206s or 210s. “Unlike its bird dog counterparts in some other parts of the world, the command-and-control firefighting aircraft in South Africa borrowed from the military forward command and control aircraft which guided its artillery and assumes the role of the air boss over the fire,” said Heine, one of the first spotter pilots employed in South Africa and the founder of Kishugu Aviation.

These aerial command and control aircraft play an essential role in coordinating wildfire suppression efforts and act as the eye in the sky for incident commanders. They provide real-time intelligence and aerial surveillance via a live video link, act as an onsite air traffic control, directing aerial bombing resources making tactical decisions about where to direct water bombing and communicate between ground and air units. Equipped with high-resolution cameras and advanced communication systems, the command-and control aircraft tracks fire behaviour, monitors its spread, and identifies high-risk areas. By maintaining a bird’s-eye view, it enables incident commanders to make informed decisions regarding resource deployment, evacuation strategies, and suppression tactics. Furthermore, it enhances safety by identifying hazards that may not be visible from the ground, such as shifting winds or isolated fire outbreaks, ensuring that firefighting efforts remain efficient and responsive to changing conditions. To do so, these pilots are trained in fire behaviour, wildland firefighting tactics and are in constant communication with all firefighting aircraft, ground teams and the incident commander.

Aerial water bombing in South Africa serves an indispensable role in delivering water to fires in remote and often inaccessible areas. These bombing drops typically consist of water mixed with a two per cent wetting agent to enhance the impact and penetration of water bombing through the vegetation. Water sources for the helicopters vary from ponds and rivers to dams, private swimming pools and sea water for fires close to the coastline. This results in a very rapid turnaround between drops. The fixed wing bombers, however, return to landing strips close to fire prone areas and usually have a five-minute reloading turnaround time.

A Kishugu JV Huey helicopter during the 2016 fire season in South Africa. Photo by Justin Sullivan

As in most countries, South Africa’s aerial firefighting resources, (excluding the occasional use of military helicopters) are privately owned and operated. However, the government-funded Working on Fire programme also includes support for aerial firefighting. The expanded public works programme has grown to employ 5300 firefighters and is supported by Kishugu Aviation’s 10 Hueys, four AT802s, 14 Spotter aircraft and a contracted Black Hawk helicopter.

Other than the national government funded Working on Fire programme, provincial governments, municipalities in fire prone regions, conservation agencies, and fire protection associations enter various contractual arrangements to give them access to the country’s aerial firefighting resources. The Western Cape provincial government has an innovative golden-hour grant, through which it pays for the first hour of aerial resources for any wildland fire in the province, thus facilitating rapid deployment of aerial resources and resulting in many fires being contained within the first hour of detection.

The extent of the wildland fire threat in South Africa outstrips current aerial firefighting resources and sometimes the costs associated with such resources inhibits its use at precisely the time when it could make a significant difference. This is particularly the case as wildland fires, under the influence of climate change, are increasingly extending into the ‘food basket’ grasslands and savannah in South Africa.

The growing impact of climate change will necessitate greater international collaboration in aerial fire fighting. Europe has already led developments in this regard, and sharing of pilots and aircraft is also likely to feature in the future of wildland fire management. It is imperative that forums such as the International Fire Aviation Working Group (IFAWG) be resuscitated across the globe to facilitate meeting this challenge.

Trevor Abrahams, Working on Fire, South Africa

Trevor Abrahams is the managing director of the Working on Fire Programme and chairperson of the Kishugu Aviation Division (Pty) Ltd board of directors. He previously established the South African Civil Aviation Authority and served as the Commissioner for Civil Aviation between 1998 and 2003. Abrahams obtained his commercial aircraft and certified flight instructor certificates from the USA Federal Aviation Authority while studying in the United States in the 1980s.

aerial firefighting South Africa

Need for more data to determine aerial effectiveness – Australia

A medium helicopter, Helitak 339, defends a retardant line in dry eucalypt forest during the Bullengarook fire in December 2024. Photo: Wayne Rigg CFA

By Matt Plucinski, Nick McCarthy, Owen Price, and Deb Sparkes

There is little quantitative knowledge of, or data describing, how aircraft are used on Australian fires or how effective they are.

Most of the existing operational understanding of suppression effectiveness is anecdotal, highly personal and difficult to compile. Most published data are limited to counts of hours flown, drops made and contracting costs. Inquiries after the devastating 2019-20 Black Summer fire season have made recommendations that research and evaluation into aerial firefighting be undertaken to address this lack of knowledge. The federal government has expressed support for this research and for evidence-based understanding of the capability required for an operationally effective fleet to meet current and future needs.

Matt Plucinski CSIRO, presenting findings from aerial firefighting research at the AFAC25 conference in Perth, Australia, August 2025.

Firefighting aircraft have become more common in Australia over the last few decades.

Current fleets, managed by states, territories and the federal government, comprise of a mix of light and heavy, fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft with a range of capabilities and capacities.

[This article is from a special edition of Wildfire Magazine on Aerial Firefighting around the World.]

This fleet has evolved over decades through experience, with different aircraft models selected for different environments based on the accessibility of filling points, terrain and obstacles associated with built environments. Firefighting aircraft are more readily deployed to incidents than in the past and are often relocated across state borders in response to fires and anticipation of elevated fire danger conditions and related spikes in fire activity.

Wildfires are managed by state and territory governments in Australia; multiple agencies share responsibility within each state depending on land tenure and location.

Bomber 132, a C130H Hercules, lays a retardant line on the Bullengarook fire in Victoria, Australia, on Dec. 21, 2024. All photos by Wayne Rigg, AFSM, Country Fire Authority.

Most aircraft are contracted from local companies, with larger aircraft bought in from overseas for the high fire danger period. Some agencies have recently begun to purchase aircraft, citing the need for availability during the whole year and a desire for multiple-purpose aircraft.

The unique geographies and arrangements within Australia’s eight state and territory jurisdictions mean firefighting resources are used in a variety of conditions and applications. While aircraft are mostly used to drop suppressants and retardants, they also perform other important roles, such as intelligence gathering, supervision, transport and ignition.

Knowing how aircraft are used during bushfire suppression operations is critical to understanding their effectiveness and will help provide a basis for promoting their effective use. This knowledge would also allow the comparison of usage patterns with intended use. Being able to identify situations in which aircraft are beneficial to suppression operations and those in which they are less so will enable the prioritisation of effective use and improve overall impact and cost efficiency. Restricting the use of aircraft in situations in which they are less likely be effective will also help to alleviate their scarcity and reduce aircrew exposure.

Effective suppression actions lead to desired outcomes for a fire. Successful outcomes can be more readily assessed when compared to explicit pre-defined objectives, which may include containment goals that relate restricting fire extent and impacts within specified time and spatial bounds. Assessing the effectiveness of high-cost resources, such as aircraft, should also consider their benefit in relation to lower-cost alternatives.

The availability of, and difficulty collecting impartial, representative and reliable operational data is a major limitation for bushfire suppression effectiveness research. There are also many diverse and interlinked variables that influence suppression effectiveness that must be considered when evaluating suppression effectiveness, such as those related to fire behaviour, environmental conditions and the application of suppression.

Many projects have investigated aerial suppression in Australia, most notably Project Aquarius, undertaken by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation in the 1980s. Project Aquarius established some intensity thresholds for effective drops in some eucalypt forest types; the thresholds were used in an economic model that recommended fire agencies invest in more, smaller, geographically dispersed aircraft than fewer large aircraft that may be slower to respond to distant fires.

Another major project, funded by the Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre in the 2000s, confirmed the significant benefit that aircraft provide during initial attack, particularly for fires that take ground crews longer to access, and fires that occur during conditions conducive to rapid fire growth; the quick travel times for firefighting aircraft can help to minimise the size of fires for incoming ground crews so they have less fire to fight and a greater chance of early containment. The project made some field observations at wildfires and planned experimental fires but noted the significant challenges to the collection of sufficient quantities of data required to support detailed analysis.

In 2023, the Country Fire Authority launched a study to assess aerial firefighting tank systems and suppressants such as water foam and retardant. To date, 57 controlled tests have been undertaken, generating a structured dataset of aircraft and tank system drop patterns to define drop effectiveness in grassland and forest environments.

Some other smaller projects have reaffirmed benefits of the use of aircraft during initial attack while others have provided some case studies of aircraft use.

The findings of aircraft being particularly beneficial during some initial attack situations have been put to good use. Some Australian jurisdictions have developed pre-determined dispatch protocols that automatically send aircraft to first reports of fires above threshold fire danger triggers (before ground-based firefighting appliances request them).

Helitak 367 dropping water on a large spot fire at the Creswick fire, which burned during extreme fire danger conditions in Victoria, Australia, on Dec. 16, 2024. Photo Wayne Rigg, CFA.

From a theoretical economic perspective, the return on investment of aircraft is the greatest when such policy settings are optimised and fires are stopped early. However, the lack of data at a scientific standard to compare pre and post implementation of such policy means policy efficacy is very challenging to study.

Because incipient fires behave differently than steady state fires, and often the best intelligence on fire behaviour comes from aircraft, there is a paradox involved with not ever knowing if such fires needed the support that they received or not. To address this, fire agencies in Victoria are investing in fire reconstructions to collect the standard of data required to answer these questions. The focus for this work is on fires where a) the fire was a close call, meaning the fire was almost or just contained thanks to surge resourcing, and b) where there is sufficient data on fire behaviour to answer the questions.

While the benefits of aircraft during initial attack are well understood and documented, their use and effectiveness during extended attack and on larger fires are not. During initial attack, the objective for most suppression is simply to contain a new fire start as soon as possible, however, objectives can be much more varied for fires that have escaped initial attack efforts. This makes understanding the goals and effectiveness of aircraft use during large fires much more complex and is also likely why the subject has received very little research attention. This is concerning because large fires tend to have significant aircraft deployments that can persist for multiple days.

Aircraft tracking and event records are emerging as an important new data source for analyses of operational responses to fires. Aircraft that are contracted through Australia’s National Aerial Firefighting Centre (NAFC) have been required to provide accurate and timely location and event reporting for a few seasons. This change requires the aircraft to be fitted with position reporting, event-reporting, and messaging equipment and to transmit this data within minutes of collection.

The data collection and transmission operate in the background without influencing operations, thereby providing a true representation of events.

The utility of this data for supporting research on aircraft use and effectiveness has only been explored in a single scoping study that examined data collected during a single season in one state. This study demonstrated that aircraft tracking and event data has great potential for supporting research; it also revealed some issues with completeness, in terms of numbers of aircraft being recorded, and the reliability of some fields, particularly those related to drop volumes and contents.

A further consideration for research using aircraft tracking and event data is that it can only provide some of the information required for studies of firefighting aircraft. Other data sources such as agency records (including fire progression isochrones, situation reports and intelligence logs), interviews with key personnel, and imagery and videography captured during operations, are required to provide critical information on suppression objectives, fire behaviour, environmental conditions and supporting suppression responses.

A new research project funded by Natural Hazards Research Australia and supported by NAFC and state and territory fire agencies will use event reporting data to investigate the application and effectiveness of aerial firefighting. The project, titled Why fly? How do we know that aerial firefighting operations are effective and efficient?, aims to describe the current aircraft use profile and evaluate the effectiveness of aerial fire fighting across Australia using case studies compiled from a range of conditions and locations.

While the Why fly? project is a great step forward to enhance Australia’s understanding of the use and effectiveness of aerial suppression, as a 1.5-year project, it will not be able to address many unresolved fire aviation effectiveness issues facing Australia and intends to make recommendations for further research and analysis.

Important issues, such as line productivity and holding, non-bombing aircraft benefits, cost effectiveness, and the effectiveness of retardants and suppressants are not being investigated in this project or any other current or planned research. For these reasons, continued improvements in data capture, completeness and availability are needed to increase the understanding of how aircraft, and other suppression resources, are applied and what they can and cannot be expected to achieve. These changes, along with further research into the many unresolved fire aviation issues previously listed, will help Australia work toward a safer, more effective and cost-efficient application of aircraft on the country’s fires.

Matt Plucinski is a senior research scientist at CSIRO in Canberra and has more than 20 years bushfire research and firefighting experience. Plucinski has conducted many field and laboratory experiments on topics associated with bushfire behaviour and suppression effectiveness, including evaluations of the effectiveness of large airtankers and assessments of wildfire suppressants and retardants. Plucinski’s research has been used to inform risk management planning, response strategies during bushfires and for fire danger assessment.

Nick McCarthy is a senior research and development officer with Country Fire Authority’s Research and Development team in Victoria, Australia, focusing on suppression effectiveness, future firefighting trends, and field data collection on fire behaviour. McCarthy previously worked as a postdoc with the U.S. Forest Service in Missoula, Montana, and completed a PhD at the University of Queensland in fire-atmosphere interactions.

Owen Price is director of the Centre for Environmental Risk Management of Bushfire at the University of Wollongong and for 18 years has been researching the evidence of impacts of bushfires on biodiversity and buildings and the effectiveness of strategies to reduce bushfire risk; this includes research on prescribed burning, construction standards and suppression with techniques involving spatial, statistical modelling and simulation. Price was born in the United Kingdom and graduated as a biologist before moving to the Northern Territory in 1992, where he worked for 13 years in wildlife research for the National Parks and Wildlife Service. He has authored 140 papers and 50 reports and in 2020 he was joint winner of the Eureka Prize for applied environmental science for analysis supporting the NSW inquiry into the 2019-2020 Black Summer inquiry.

Deb Sparkes is the aviation research and evaluation manager at the National Aerial Firefighting Centre (NAFC), a business unit of AFAC. With extensive experience leading national bushfire management initiatives, Sparkes has played a pivotal role in projects such as the development of the new Australian Fire Danger Ratings System, prescribed burning guidelines, and Spark, Australia’s newest bushfire simulation tool. Driven by a passion for knowledge exchange, Sparkes is committed to fostering collaboration and creating networks that spark innovation and drive progress.

aerial firefighting Australia

Large Airtanker effectiveness research – United States

Airtanker 417 dropping 8 door string drop along the right flank of a fire in the Northwest Territories. Photo courtesy of the Government of the Northwest Territories.

By Dave Calkin, Cal Bryan and Jim Riddering

There has been a small but growing body of research within the United States on the use and effectiveness of aviation over the past 15 years; much of this focused on large airtankers.

Studies have focused on understanding where and when aviation drops occur, how fire managers prioritize the use of aviation, optimal fleet design, and how risk management concepts can inform where and when to most effectively apply aviation.

[This article is from a special edition of Wildfire Magazine on Aerial Firefighting around the World.]

The most expansive research effort to date was the Aerial Firefighting Use and Effectiveness (AFUE) study initiated in 2012 to “systematically document the operational utilization and tactical contribution of aerial firefighting resources that have the ability to deliver water and wildland fire chemicals in support of incident objectives.”

As part of the AFUE study, the research team coordinated with incident commanders to collect data on aviation use on 272 wildfires from 2015 to 2018, including more than 5,000 airtanker retardant drops. The research team recorded the primary suppression objective for each retardant drop based on radio communication, operational briefings, and/or post-hoc conversations with incident management. Drops were then categorized into a variety of different outcomes, including no fire interaction, burned through, halted fire spread, and others. The research team then created performance metrics to measure the likelihood of aviation drops interacting with wildfire and their probability of success.

The AFUE study included observations for a variety of aviation platforms dropping water and retardant.

Halting fire spread and delaying fire spread were the two most common objectives for retardant drops, each representing more than 40 per cent of drop objectives with point protection coming in a distant third at 10 per cent. About one-quarter of all large airtanker (LAT) drops did not interact with the final fire perimeter, demonstrating the use of airtankers for indirect suppression tactics and contingency line development. Not surprisingly, for those drops that interacted with wildfire, the probability of successful drops intended to halt fire spread was lower (55 per cent) than the objective of slowing fire spread (75 per cent) and point protection (87 per cent). Although the AFUE study provided a level of detail regarding drop objectives and relative measures of success, there was an important question unanswered: do these mission objectives truly alter wildfire outcomes during extended attack?

Researchers at Colorado State University are engaged in a study to provide formal calculations on the effectiveness of large airtanker retardant drops at altering wildfire growth. The researchers use data provided by units mounted inside LATs that record the exact locations and times of retardant drops, along with information on the daily growth of wildfires from 2017 to 2019, to evaluate fire characteristics before and after the wildfire passes over the retardant line. The researchers evaluate the change in wildfire characteristics as the fire moves through a swath of land that is split by the retardant line. However, a critical piece of information to understand the effectiveness of LAT suppression at the drop level is a comparison with areas unaffected by retardant.

To ensure accurate comparisons, the researchers measure wildfire outcomes in adjacent areas with similar vegetation and topography. The key difference? These areas lack retardant lines, serving as a control, thus creating what is known as a natural experiment. The difference in the change in wildfire outcomes as the fire moves through these two swaths of land provides statistics for the effectiveness of LAT retardant drops.

Aviation drops relative to daily fire progression and populated areas on the Alexander Mountain Fire in Colorado in 2024. Heavy retardant use during the first several days of the event were unsuccessful in stopping the fire, requiring operations to fall back to more favorable locations near populated areas. Graphic by Jim Riddering.

An overlay of airtanker drop locations with the Potential Control Locations. Fires have a high likelihood of stopping in areas with cool colors (blue and green) and low likelihood in hotter colors (red and orange). The image shows drops on the Alexander Mountain Fire in the Pike San Isabel National Forest in Colorado in 2024. Graphic by Jim Riddering.

The researchers evaluated the effectiveness of LATs at halting wildfire progression, reducing the intensity, and delaying the spread of wildfire; they found that LATs are effective at altering wildfire outcomes in all three ways.

Wildfire is 8.4 per cent less likely to spread into land that is protected with an LAT drop compared to land that is not buffered by retardant.

Similarly, the intensity of fire (measured by the gridded Monitoring Trends in Burn Severity layer) is 7.5 per cent lower for land protected by a retardant line.

Land protected by retardant takes four to five hours longer to burn than unprotected areas, giving crews crucial time to respond.

These findings reveal the tangible impact of LAT drops on wildfire behavior, offering key insights for suppression strategies.

These statistics aggregate the effectiveness of retardant drops across a variety of landscape and weather conditions. However, the Colorado State researchers have found that LATs are more effective across all three dimensions when dropping on land covered with shrub vegetation, compared to areas dominated by grass or trees. They have also found that air tankers can delay the spread of wildfire by more than 30 hours when used in conjunction with other types of suppression, and that tankers classified as very large airtankers, or VLATs, based on larger tanks for holding retardant, can reduce the likelihood of fire spreading by roughly 12 per cent relative to land not protected by any retardant drops. This research also provides assessment of the influence of topography and general weather conditions on drop line effectiveness.

Understanding the effectiveness of large airtanker drops is a crucial step in refining wildfire suppression strategies, but translating research results into actionable feedback for incident management teams remains a challenge.

Developing processes to review past actions and provide near real-time information to the field is essential for improving future wildfire responses and maximizing the effectiveness of airtanker use.

As such, researchers and fire managers have been using additional telemetry units (ATUs) to track various metrics associated with air tanker drops. ATUs are mounted on all federally contracted airtankers (and some single engine airtankers – SEATs). ATUs are GPS-enabled devices that track parameters such as aircraft location, time, heading, altitude, and most importantly, tanker door open and close events.

ATU data have been used since 2017 to calculate air tanker drop locations and associate various analytics with those drops. These original aviation use summaries (AUS) were manually produced and provided to fire managers through the US Forest Service’s Risk Management Assistance (RMA) dashboard to help inform how fire chemical and water were being applied to the landscape.

Additionally, the AUS process can be used as a powerful after-action review of the effectiveness of aviation drops in supporting suppression actions. Original metrics associated with the AUS reports focused on analyzing time of day, fuel types, and slope classes where the drops were occurring. Subsequent AUS development used the rise of integrated metrics such as suppression difficulty index (SDI) and potential control locations (PCL) within the RMA dashboard to provide additional context for managers to evaluate the use of air tanker drops on incident strategy and tactics.

More recently, US Forest Service personnel have worked to automate the processing of ATU data to expedite the production and distribution of airtanker drop information and associated analytics. Daily processing starts by creating lines from ATU GPS point data for door open and door close events. These derived drop lines are then extended to account for forward momentum of the fire chemical or water. Next, drop lines are buffered and values for SDI, PCL, slope, elevation (of the line), and majority fuel model are extracted for the buffer, and appended back to each drop line feature class (Figure 1). A significant amount of processing time is devoted to quality assurance to remove redundant or bad data points and ensure the creation of logical drop lines. Problematic lines are flagged as possible false positives but retained in the database. Other attributes added include split drop information (where a tanker will split the load and do multiple drops in one flight), the calculation of various time parameters, and incident name association. The final step updates an ArcGIS Online (AGOL) Feature Service. The feature service feeds an AGOL dashboard that is available to credentialed managers and users. Work continues to improve estimation of gallons dropped and tracking costs associated with flights.

Through the automated processing and near-real time distribution, users such as incident management team members, aviation officers, and coordination center managers are better able to monitor drop locations (including areas of misapplication), assess the use of air tanker resources on their incident, and build knowledge using derived analytics to help them evaluate the effectiveness of air tanker resources.

This work highlights the importance of integrating research findings with managerial experience to determine effective resource use. Dan Dallas, an incident commander with the US Forest Service in Colorado and early adopter of the AUS system explained the value.

“The AUS provides us the ability to examine recent drops in near real time on fires we manage giving us the information necessary to identify where and when aviation could best support suppression actions. Using the AUS to examine our management of past events allowed us the opportunity to think more clearly about how aviation can best support our incident strategy. This has allowed us to clearly articulate our strategy in aviation use to the hosting unit and our field-going personnel. We firmly believe the use of AUS has significantly improved the effectiveness and efficiency of our suppression actions and overall fire strategy.”

Aerial drops are probably the most iconic and visible activities in wildfire suppression and often a critical component to initial attack and large fire suppression strategies. The effectiveness and efficiency of wildfire suppression actions writ large is poorly understood, and we largely rely on the experiences of incident management team members and field-going firefighters to determine what resources are needed and where they should engage.

Aviation is but one component of wildfire suppression and the coordination of the broad array of ground and aerial resources is a highly complex process.

The AFUE study provides an indication of the type of objectives and conditions of effectiveness but did not uncover how objectives contribute to overall fire suppression outcomes.

Given the costs of wildfire suppression, exposure of ground and aviation personnel, and the impacts to natural and developed resources, improving the effectiveness and efficiency of wildfire management is essential and understanding aviation’s role will be critical to that effort. Progress will be contingent on the ability for researchers and managers to work together to foster more safe, effective, and efficient solutions.

Dave Calkin is a supervisory research forester with the US Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station in Missoula, Montanna. Calkin’s work is designed to improve risk-informed decision making through innovative science development, application, and delivery incorporating economics with risk and decision sciences. Calkin’s research interests include risk assessment, collaborative wildfire mitigation and response planning, suppression effectiveness, and risk informed decision making. Calkin developed and leads the Wildfire Risk Management Science (WRMS) team within the US Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station.

Cal Bryan is a post-doctoral researcher in the Agricultural & Natural Resource Economics department at Colorado State University, interested in researching methods to optimize operational resources for fighting large-scale wildfires. Bryan holds a bachelor’s degree in bioenvironmental sciences from Texas A&M University, a master’s degree in economics from San Diego State University, and a PhD from Colorado State in agricultural and natural resource economics. Bryan’s PhD dissertation, titled Evaluating the Efficiency, Equity, and Effectiveness of Wildfire Suppression Strategy Using the Microeconomic Toolkit, focuses on determining patterns in large airtanker use across wildfires in the United States and their effectiveness at altering wildfire outcomes. Before starting graduate school, Bryan spent several years working seasonally for the U.S. Forest Service in various roles, including trail crew supervisor, interpretive ranger, and type-II wildland firefighter.

Jim Riddering is an aviation analyst with the Strategic Analytics Branch of the U.S. Forest Service Office of Fire and Aviation Management. Riddering’s responsibilities include managing the Additional Telemetry Unit (ATU) program, developing data processing streams, and providing analysis of aircraft use. Riddering holds a PhD in forestry from the University of Montana and has more than 20 years of wildland fire experience, including time on hotshot and engine crews. Riddering is a qualified Aerial Observer (AOBS), holds a private pilot’s license (SEL), and is working on completing his Long-term Analyst (LTAN)

aerial firefighting United States

Inmates on the fireline

by Canyon Hohenstein

Wildfires are here, and prisoners will be deployed to the frontlines to help fight these flames. They were on the 2025 L.A. Fires.

Every summer, wildfires explode onto the scene and into the collective imagination. People are mesmerized by the beauty and brutality of this natural phenomenon. At the intersection of prisoners and wildfires, you confront issues about the stewardship of this planet and its people.

A vital question must be answered: Why are inmates fighting fires in the first place?

The twin seeds were an inmate work program created in 1915, when California established road camps where prisoners built roads throughout the state. In 1933, President Roosevelt created the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) to pull unemployed men from the pits of the Great Depression and into conservation efforts, saying its greatest benefit was “the moral and spiritual value of such work.”

World War II ushered in the demise of the CCC. The nation’s money was needed for the war effort. But wildfires wouldn’t stop because of a global war.

Manpower was scarce, so California’s Division of Forestry turned to its prisoner road camps as a temporary solution for cheap fire suppression.

A 1944 article from the California Institution for Men overflows with pride about the vital work the inmates were doing, “On the ground fighting the smoke, flames, heat and fire bugs, will be found the fire crews of CIM…Millions of acres of valuable timber and grass and hundreds of homes have been saved through the efforts of our crews.”

It finishes with a conclusion that is still true today, “Our men…are veritable gold to Uncle Sam, due to the manpower shortage.”

California wanted to capitalize on this newfound asset, and set up the Rainbow Conservation Camp in 1946, a groundbreaking camp that trained prisoners to battle the state’s blazes.

Firefighting wasn’t a means of punishing prisoners for their crimes. It tapped into an American tradition of public-service labor enshrined by the CCC and solidified in World War II. The ideological underpinnings of prisons were about rehabilitation, not retribution. The California Institution of Men was opened to “…replace hard stone walls with open space, dorm settings and opportunities for those serving prison sentences to turn their lives around.”

The crucible of flames was the pinnacle of this mission. The project was packaged as progressive: Good for firefighting, the inmates, and California’s forests (and budget).

The program expanded, and with it came concern from Californians. A 1950 letter sent to Governor Earl Warren expresses fear from residents of Meadow Vista about the new prison camp set to be built near them. The fearful citizen speaks of declining property value and how, “In this age of sex degenerates, we will be afraid to let our children out of sight, whereas now they range freely about a friendly neighborhood.”

The camp near Meadow Vista was axed. But California is a big state. There were plenty of other locations for future sites.

Governor Pat Brown said in his 1959 inaugural address that new forestry camps and industrial training programs would give every inmate a skill and work habits for release. Under him, the program grew to 42 camps with 2,880 inmates.

The fear about these inmates being in open spaces rather than closed cells came from projection more than reality. Folks said good things about inmate firefighters when their homes were saved.

In 1961, an elderly woman wrote to Governor Brown, “I don’t care who they are. They helped save my house.”

Former inmate firefighter Wayne Hunnicutt said, “No one treated us like prisoners. It was like being a civilian. You were treated better, more as a human being.”

In 1956, the Inaja Fire killed Andy Williams and the crew he led, including two fellow Forest Service employees, a prison correctional officer, and seven incarcerated firefighters.

Lives had been sacrificed. Houses had been saved. And yet, people still could only see the label of prisoners. In 1961, a state fire dispatcher said, “We even had to go to the State prisons for help. We really scraped the bottom of the barrel.”

San Quentin’s Inmate Council didn’t take this statement kindly. They responded, “The men who fight fires and are serving their sentences in prisons, are paying fully for their wrongs. When they try to function in a manner that will benefit society, and get kicked in the pants for their efforts, it is, to say the least, demoralizing.”

Despite some public grumbling, the program was a success. Other states prone to forest fires followed California’s model.

In the 1980s, Arizona rolled out its inmate fire crew program. Many states followed. As of 2025, 15 states have active inmate fire crews.

California again blazed the trail by opening an all-female inmate conservation camp in 1983.

By this time, the ethos of imprisonment had shifted from the rehabilitative purpose of prison to the “Law and Order” mindset, which emphasized a punitive framework for crime. The purpose of inmate fire crews was no longer about the moral and spiritual value of such work, but about saving money.

A 1990 pamphlet prepared by the Department of Corrections said, “As they repay their debt to society, camp inmates also provide a real economic benefit to local communities. In 1989 alone, camp inmates worked 5.5 million hours–a $43 million value.”

The author's prison crew that he led in Montana — The author’s prison crew that he led in Montana

In the 90s, mass incarceration peaked. Prisons were packed. In the 2000s, inmate fire programs expanded, but public interest was little, as was the pay for prisoners.

Then the 2010s struck, igniting a decade of extreme wildfires. The Camp Fire made international news, as did the prisoners facing this firestorm. Thousands of prisoners nationwide were on the fireline, and valid criticisms grew.

2020 changed everything, especially in California. COVID drained inmate fire crews as the governor released thousands of low-level offenders, and many remaining prisoners were too sick to serve. This was a massive blow. Prisoners made up about 30% of California’s wildland firefighters.

The state has passed laws like AB 2147, allowing inmate firefighters to petition the court for expungement after serving in a conservation camp. They can also earn good conduct credit to reduce their sentence.

Many states have taken similar actions. Washington has created ARC 20, and Colorado passed SB 21-012 to create post-release opportunities for inmate firefighters.

The federal government is considering the FIRE Act to grant incarcerated wildland firefighters fair wages, workplace safety protections, reentry support, and record-expungement opportunities.

Right now, increasing inmate firefighter standards falls on the states. Prisoner wages are still far below those of normal firefighters, even with recent pay increases.

One must remember that these firefighters volunteer; they are not forced. Nor is their work limited to the fireline; they can perform mop-up operations, provide support in fire camp, and do mitigation work in the offseason.

Which inmates can serve varies by state. In California, candidates must be at least 18, classified for minimum custody, and within eight years of release. They need a clean recent disciplinary record and must be medically cleared for the physical and mental demands of the job. Certain crimes are automatic disqualifiers: arson, sexual offenses, murder, rape, kidnapping, escape attempts, or active gang affiliation. Those with felony holds, life sentences, or “public interest” cases are also excluded.

Inmate fire crews are fully trained to the standards of other firefighters. They must pass NWCG training modules and the pack test and do hands-on drills like digging line. Like other resources, inmate fire crews are fully embedded in the Incident Command System.

The programs are run through cooperation between a state’s corrections and forestry departments. Each agency plays a different role: Corrections will supervise security, while forestry departments provide equipment. Every inmate gets basic PPE: gloves, hand tools, Nomex, etc.

Other countries use inmate fire crews. A prison in New South Wales, Australia, has a fully trained bushfire fighting team. British Columbia, Canada, has used them in support positions. These are non-frontline roles.

America’s inmate fire crew programs are a whole different beast. They put prisoners smack-dab in the middle of the action: This isn’t just a work development program. It’s a vital part of wildfire suppression for many states.

Is inmate firefighting a financial convenience or an avenue of redemption? Perhaps both. The truth resists simplicity – it would take a book to figure out.

Gone are the days when moral redemption was the purpose of an inmate facing the flames. Now it’s all about cost-benefit analysis. They are a cheap way to fight fires. But is there any deeper value to these programs?

Maybe if we still spoke with Roosevelt’s rhetoric about the moral development of public service—but we’re a long way from that era, now in a society that cares about the dollars it can save rather than the development of its people.

Wildfires don’t just destroy, they reveal. And what one sees in these inmate firefighters, unshackled from the penitentiary walls, are heroes working to protect America from the threat of fire.

The flames demand the best from them, allowing them to learn new skills, taste some adventure, overcome the wrong they’ve done, and use their strength of mind and body for something productive.

Out there on the line, inmates are no longer just serving time; they’re serving a purpose. That was once the point of prison – for the sake of America’s inmate firefighters, it should be again.

Canyon Hohenstein spent seven seasons as a wildland firefighter in Montana.

The apex of his career was leading a 20-man prison crew on the fireline. He then turned to writing, exploring themes like the stewardship of our planet and its people.

His debut novel, rooted in his time fighting fires alongside incarcerated men, tells a story of flawed characters seeking redemption in the heart of a wildfire.

Gene Rogers – a life of service to the fire community

Remembering Gene Rogers

August 8, 1951 – February 11, 2025

Gene Rogers, a revered figure in the US wildland fire community, passed away on February 11, 2025, following a courageous battle with cancer. Known for his sharp intellect, boundless energy, and lifelong dedication to fire science and public service, Gene left an indelible mark on all who had the privilege to work with or learn from him.

A Career Defined by Fire and Leadership

Gene’s fire journey began with the U.S. Forest Service and expanded through various pivotal roles, including his time with the Bureau of Land Management in Eugene, Oregon, and as the Fire Management Officer for Crater Lake National Park. A passionate advocate for education and safety, he taught wildfire training courses at Bakersfield Community College, Klamath Community College, and the Keno Fire District, shaping the next generation of wildland fire professionals.

Gene Rogers, with past president of the IAWF Joaquin Ramirez at an IAWF conference table.

He was a distinguished Fire Behavior Analyst on National Type I Incident Management Teams, lending his expertise during major natural disasters, including the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. He also served on the State Fire Marshal Team and worked on hundreds of wildfires throughout his life—earning him the affectionate nickname of a “legal pyromaniac.”

Gene’s leadership extended internationally through his long-standing involvement with the International Association of Wildland Fire (IAWF), where he served for many years on the Board of Directors. His passion for fire protection continued in retirement, founding his own company to help homeowners safeguard their properties. Notably, he authored and continuously updated the fire plan for Moore Park beginning in 1982, and served as an elected member of the Klamath County Fire Board.

A Life Beyond Fire

Outside of his professional pursuits, Gene’s love of life was evident in his many hobbies and achievements. He had a profound love for music—beginning with trombone in third grade, culminating in first chair with the Humboldt State Wind Symphony, and later exploring the bass guitar during retirement. His musical journey led him to performances with ensembles, jazz bands, and even a Pro/Am blues jam at sea.

Gene was an avid outdoorsman and athlete. He enjoyed skiing, running, cycling, and played competitive tennis in college before transitioning to handball and racquetball later in life. He found peace and purpose in hunting, fishing, and camping across the Pacific Northwest.

Family and Education

Born and raised in Oroville, California, Gene graduated from Las Plumas High School before attending Butte Junior College and Humboldt State University. His thirst for knowledge led to further studies in Timber Fire Management at the University of Washington, as well as Remote Sensing and various fire science certifications.

At Humboldt, Gene met Nancy Hogan in 1971, beginning a love story that led to their marriage in 1975. Together, they raised two children: Jim, who resides in Portland with his wife Monica and son Javi, and Erin, who lives in San Diego with her husband Sylvio and sons Preston and Chase.

Gene was also a proud member of Tau Kappa Epsilon, where he forged lifelong friendships and a spirit of brotherhood that he carried with him throughout his life.

Celebrating a Life Well Lived

A celebration of Gene’s life will take place on August 2, 2025, from 12:00 PM to 4:00 PM at the Klamath Yacht Club.

Guests are encouraged to wear Hawaiian shirts, in honor of Gene’s joyful spirit and love for fun.

In lieu of flowers, donations may be made to The Nature Conservancy, an organization dear to both Gene and Nancy for over 50 years.

A time of remembrance

By Bequi Livingston

As we find ourselves in full swing of wildfire season, it also brings a multitude of wildfire anniversaries. For me, the Dude Fire first comes to mind, which took the lives of five members of the Perryville Inmate crew and a Corrections Officer on June 26, 1990. In 2024, a memorial park was dedicated to the Dude Fire victims, with a documentary coming out soon.

Shortly after, comes Yarnell Hill, which claimed the lives of 19 members of the Granite Mountain Hotshot crew on June 30, 2013, with South Canyon, on the heels, claiming the lives of 14 elite firefighters on July 6, 1994. There are so many more, including Rattlesnake, Thirtymile, Battlement Mesa, and Mann Gulch. There are others that are tucked in among them; too many to recall, yet every single event requires remembrance and a time of contemplation for those that were lost and injured, and those left behind to grieve.

Last Memorial Day, 2024, I had the honor of being the keynote speaker at the annual remembrance commemoration, held at the New Mexico Fallen Wildland Firefighter Memorial, settled in the serene Smokey Bear Historical Park, where Smokey Bear is buried in Capitan. Here, among the pines, is a bronze statue of a wildland firefighter, aside the plaque naming those that have lost their lives in New Mexico wildfires. For several years, the Smokey Bear Historical Park has been hosting this commemorative event, for the families and friends of the fallen, remembering those that have been lost, while supporting those left behind to grieve. The celebration is by invitation only to the families and friends of the fallen, along with other local wildland firefighters and special guests.

The 2024 event started with a bagpiper escorting people to their seats, followed by a welcome and prayer, and then my keynote speech, which I had to read, line by line, in order to keep my focus with all the emotions it brought up. My daughter Amity, was among the group, representing Bernalillo County Sheriff’s Office who lost 3 BCSO crewmembers, and one BCFD crewmember on their Metro One BCSO helicopter, while supporting a wildfire in Northern New Mexico on July 16, 2022. Ironically, my daughter had been on the Air Unit. deciding to take time off to focus on her work as a Deputy; otherwise, she could have easily been on that helicopter. That event took this mother to her knees, as tears welled up in my eyes as I spoke, glancing to see my daughter seated there in front of me, giving me strength and encouragement to speak my truth. She became my Touchpoint of Hope, helping to support and ground me when I was really struggling to get my words out.

The event was beautiful, with each name being read, s-l-o-w-l-y, to the chime of the bell, as the bagpipe touched our heartstrings with its serenade. Snacks were provided afterwards, giving everyone a chance to share stories of their loved ones. My speech included a poem that I wrote around the theme, Touchpoints of Hope, as suggested to me by my good friend Mary Lavin, Manager of the Smokey Bear Historical Park.

A DAY IN THE LIFE OF A WILDLAND FIREFIGHTER

by Bequi Livingston

The thunderstorm rolls in with lightning ablaze.
We look towards the mountains with a purposeful gaze.
Binoculars in hand as we intensely look for smoke.
As the fury of the fire storm suddenly awoke.

The ring of the fire bell, as we’re called into place.
Assembling our fire gear as we quicken our pace.
Chainsaws and hand tools, Pulaski’s and more.
We think of our loved ones as we walk out the door.

Once on the wildfire, the adrenaline pumps.
Whether digging a fire line, in the air, or smoke jumps.
We all are gathered here in the place we call home.
Doing a job we all love, knowing we’re never alone.

Our head is held high, with our boots on the ground;
The Pulaski swings wide, as it clears the hard mound.
The pack on our back feels like lead on our hips;
“Bump Up”, says the crew boss, as we curse from our lips.

The whir of the copter blades, hums out a tune,
As the pilot maneuvers, on the edge of a spoon.
The Bambi bucket sways full of water to drop,
On a long line beneath it as the water just plops.

The airplane above us as it circles the fire;
Whether ‘eyes in the sky’ or another desire.
The smokejumpers exit, as parachutes fill with air.
The pilot who flies with grace, our lives in their care.

The Engine crews come on scene with hoses laid out,
Pumping water from the nearby lake, never in doubt.
The dispatchers standing by, with radio in hand,
Supporting us through every vocal command.

Once the fire subsides and it’s time for a break;
We assemble in fire camp as long as it takes.
Eating MRE’s from a plastic bag, or catered galore.
We sleep on the ground, with the generators roar.

Then it’s back to the line, once again at daybreak,
Another long shift, as we struggle to stay awake.
Hours turn into days, and days turn into weeks.
As our body writhes with pain, of which we never speak.

We return to our loved ones, the ones always left behind.
As we struggle to grasp our reality off the fire line.
It’s hard to sit still as fire pulses through our veins.
We can’t wait to go back to this world of chronic stress and pain.

It’s all that we know, it’s what we love most.
This chaos called wildfire, of which we all boast.
Yet, it’s here in this place that we forget who we are.
But this is the job that we all love and admire.

Yet, it’s the invisible wounds that tend to tear us apart.
The grief and the trauma, the ache in our hearts.
The unspoken horrors, the tears we can’t cry.
We’ve felt so much craziness, yet we can’t reason why.

It’s here in the place, that can take us to our knees.
Affecting our health, through chronic disease.
Our loved ones feel lost, as they too feel grief.
The people we’ve lost, the things we have seen.

It’s so hard to explain how this place feels to us.
Words can’t begin to describe the incredible loss.
We know we need help but there seems nowhere to turn.
Yet, we know we must reach out and get help in return.

We are all humans here in this place we call home.
And wildfire beckons us back to our bones.
And just like the wildfire that brings life back to earth.
We must trust the great process through fire and rebirth.

And, just like the Phoenix bird that rises above,
Bursting forth from the ashes, filled with compassion and love.
This majestic bird teaches us how to rise and to cope.
Leaving us all feeling grateful, knowing there are TOUCHOINTS of HOPE.

During this wildfire season, may you honor those that have been lost in a way that is meaningful to you. I invite you to take time for silent contemplation and stillness on each of the anniversaries, sitting with your own grief, in whatever way feels safe and supportive. We do such a good job, in this wildland culture, to let these important moments pass us by, busying ourselves in order not to feel our own grief. May this inspire you to take time for your self-care first, and perhaps become a Touchpoint of Hope for somebody else that might be in need of support.

Be safe, be brave and take good care of YOU.

Bequi Livingston was the first woman recruited by the New Mexico-based Smokey Bear Hotshots for its elite wildland firefighting crew. She was the Regional Fire Operations Health and Safety Specialty for the U.S. Forest Service in Albuquerque, New Mexico.